Analysing Rationality And Objectivity

Analysing Rationality And Objectivity Central to critical thinking and education espoused by Israel Scheffler are the concepts of rationality, objectivity, and pragmatic realism. Schefflers conception of rationality is normative; he views rationality as a mode of thought and action which all strive for (Sheffler, 1973) as opposed to a conception of rationality as descriptive which would suppose that rationality is a daily manifestation in our lives. Another interpretation that Scheffler provides to rationality is that it underscores both the ends of actions as well as the values embedded within them (Scheffler, 1973). Scheffler recognizes that rationality is sometimes categorized and separated into the theoretical and practical domains: theoretical rationality deals with beliefs whereas practical rationality emphasizes on actions. Scheffler favors a hybrid concept of rationality wherein both theoretical and practical aspects are considered. In Reason and Teaching, Scheffler defined rationality as the ability to participate in critical and open evaluation of rules and principles in any area of life and the free and critical quest for reasons (Scheffler, 1973, p. 62). The fundamental characteristics of reason then are consistency and experience; these constitute rationality in the judgment of specific issues (Scheffler, 1973). The requirement of formal consistency purports that our evaluation and elaboration cannot be considered rational if there are no operative principles or criteria to guide us in forming judgment. However, these rules and principles are not implanted in the mind but are products of the evolution of human knowledge. Scheffler (1973) explained: The fundamental point is that rationality cannot be taken simply as an abstract and general ideal. It is embodied in multiple evolving traditions, in which the basic condition holds that issues are resolved by reference to reasons, themselves defined by principles purporting to be impartial and universal. (p. 79) Scheffler views that rationality should be considered a fundamental aim in education. As a broad concept, rationality has the tendency to bridge the different fields of education rather than pull them apart (Siegel, 1996, p. 649). Rationality and all the ideas attached to it are pivotal to discussion, consideration, reflection, and deliberation. Scheffler provides the example of a dancer. Dance incorporates rationality as the student performs; dance is not merely emoting and simply flailing of arms and legs. It requires thinking, questioning, and talking by way of gestures. Objectivity Schefflers conception of rationality is tied to objectivity which is defined as the process where judgments are put to the test of independence and impartial criteria (Scheffler, 1967, p. 1, 3). Neiman and Siegel (1993) elucidate on the connection of rationality and objectivity in the Schefflerian context: If my belief that p is rational, then that belief is based upon relevant evidence which is impartially and objectively weighed and assessed. Objectivity, in the sense specified, is thus a necessary condition for science and for rational deliberation and belief more generally. But rationality is equally required for objective judgment, since such judgment requires that claims and assertions be evaluated independently, on the basis of relevant evidence, and that the judgment reached be determined by the strength of that evidence. (p. 61) Responding to the claims of the positivist school that beliefs are ultimately subjective, Scheffler argued the issue of objectivity as a way by which we can examine our belief systems and choose from other competing paradigms which is best, based on good reasons (Scheffler, 1982). Scheffler cautions against the excesses of the Cartesian method where truth is held as miserly caution where the scientist gathers the facts and guards the hoard (Scheffler, 2009, p. 131). Theoretical imagination is considered a distraction and an obstacle to pure objective science. According to Scheffler, so long as people have access to methods and opportunities to deliberate, they manifest to varying degrees, their level of objectivity. To him, objectivity concerns the manner of justification; it requires only the responsible commitment to fair canons of control over ones theoretical claims (Scheffler, 1982, p. 67). In response to demands of certainty and uniformity in scientific inquiry, Scheffler (2009 ) provides this critique: This doctrine is, in fact, the death of theory. Theory is not reducible to mere fact gathering, and theoretical creation is beyond the reach of any mechanical routine. Science controls theory by credibility, logic, and simplicity; it does not provide rules for the creation of theoretical ideas. Scientific objectivity demands allegiance to fair controls over theory, but fair controls cannot substitute for ideas. (p. 131). Moreover, a crucial element of Schefflers conception of objectivity is the absence of certainty, a reflection to his commitment on the epistemological doctrine of fallibility (Scheffler, 1982). Accordingly, the criteria made for justification are also fallible (Siegel, 1982). The norms and criteria should be universal if only to media conflicts between belief systems of particular groups or cultures. However universal we would want these norms to be, we cannot prove the validity of how these criteria serve as justification for objectivity. Hence, justification should not be misconstrued as truth (Siegel, 1982). In the context of education, the inevitable facts of human fallibility and cumulative nature of scientific knowledge preclude absolute certainty. Scientific principles or scientific doctrines should not be considered as absolutes; rather, education must be organized in such a manner which leaves some room for the possibility of intelligible debate over the comparative merits o f rival paradigms (Scheffler, 1982, p. 130). In this regard, educational content should not be presented as eternal truths but rather as the best truths that we have come up with for the time being. Scheffler conceptualizes rationality and objectivity in relation to a reality that exists independently. This reality partially evaluates which assertions are based on good reasons. In his response to Nelson Goodman, Scheffler makes an inference on truth as a human construction: Surely we made the words by which we describe stars; that these words are discourse dependent is trivially [trueà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.It] doesnt imply that stars are themselves discourse dependent. (p. 200) Schefflers interpretation of rationality and objectivity figures into what he considers a minimal version of realism. He approaches the entire concept of reality as an educational aim with suspicion. In lieu of reality, Scheffler argues that educators need to emphasize the constrained nature of our inquiry. In the context of educational practice, educators must acknowledge that there are theories more credible over others; our deliberation and evaluation on what these theories are should be depend on reasoned judgment and sound criteria (Scheffler, 1973). Realism presupposes an ideal of expanding our conception of reality. In this case, teachers must encourage and help children keep in touch with reality and provide them with skills in order to manage within it and learn from it. Hence, realism also emphasizes how the development of critical abilities is indispensable in the evaluation and improvement of systems of description to make them more attuned to reality. Scheffler does not subscribe to radical constructivism which proposes that students should be left alone to construe their own knowledge or belief systems without guidance. Without such guidance, students are left with inappropriate or inadequate conceptual tools to learn and manage within reality. Like many supporters of the realist school, Scheffler believes that people who know and understand independent reality will have a greater probability of living a more rewarding life and making more reasonable choices. Accepting the plurality of theoretical and practical domains is one that must be embraced, based on good reason and evidence. Opposite radical constructivism is reductionism which narrows, delimits, and relativizes human understanding so that educational practice is tailor-made to fit into oversimplified conceptual constructs and absolute ideas of right and wrong answers. The idea of scientific and technical human being is one example. To Scheffler, the ideal educator uses Objectivity without certainty, relativity but not subjectivism, truth consistent with pluralism these are the pragmatic emphases I admire (Scheffler, 2009, p. 3). Schefflers views on rationality and objectivity emphasize the importance of reason and observation in our pursuit of understanding and truth. However, these pursuits do not preclude the use of non-cognitive emotions or morality. Based on Schefflers pragmatic realist point of view, the non-cognitive aspects of our belief systems do not automatically make them succumb to reason. In fact, in Schefflers (2009) view: The ideal theorist, loyal to the demands of rational character and the institutions of scientific objectivity, is not therefore passionless and prim. Theoretical inventiveness requires not caution but boldness, verve, speculative daring. Imagination is no hindrance but the very life of theory, without which there is no science. (p. 131) In summary, Scheffler assets that a degree of objectivity is required to pursue rationality. Rationalitys function is to help us weigh, assess, and evaluate our beliefs and actions based on good reasons and evidence. Objectivity ensures that our deliberations or judgments are impartial and not biased.

Malcolm X Essay

Comparing the vocabularies of â€Å"Idiot Nation† and â€Å"Learning to Read†, I came out with the result that, Moores had used relatively critical words and vigorous words to write the passage. The way he narrated was rather extreme, he used words such as †idiots† and â€Å"stupidity† to insult the educational system in U. S. A. His tone was rather extreme and furious. He had even bolded some of the words in order to exaggerate his tone. In the other hand, Malcolm had used his own experience as the root of writing. The passage is to me more persuasive, since he had his own perspective and angles. Although the way Moores wrote could create a more remarkable impression, â€Å"Learning to Read† is more appealing to me since it doesn’t seem to strong and extreme. CORE QUESTIONS 4. Malcolm’s self-education in the prison assisted his later achievement on the society such as became a disciple of Elijah Muhammad and finding the Nation of Islam. The knowledge he had gained urged him to fight for right of the black. 5. B Bimbi was an inmate of Malcolm in the prison. He was always able to take over conversation. Malcolm was always envy of Bimbi’s stock of knowledge. Bimbi inspired Malcolm to read a lot of books in the prison in order to gain more knowledge. He said Malcolm should take advantage of the library in the prison and the time in the prison. At that point, Malcolm found out that he should improve his English by reading more books, so he started copying the dictionary. Bimbi had broadened the horizon of Malcolm’s. With his encouragement, Malcolm started to educate himself. Bimbi was a person whom Malcolm showed a lot of respect. Malcolm showed his debut credit to Elijah Muhmmad, the leader of Nation of Oslam Malcolm (NOI) was a devoted disciple of Elijah Muhmmad. He assigned Malcolm as a minister and national spokesman for the NOI. He taught Malcolm a lot of political techniques and provided him a lot of chances to increase his authority. Without Elijah’s elevation, Malcolm could not be able to have such a big achievement on fighting for the rights of Africans. Although the relationship between them later broke down, Elijah still had a great influence on Malcolm, and was respected by Malcolm. 6. After doing handful researches on Fanny Kemble, Nat Turner, John Brown, Mahatma Gandhi and Frederick Olmsted, I have found a common fact of them. They are all fighting for rights. For Fanny Kemble, Nat Turner, John Brown and Mahatma Gandhi, the ultimate aim of them is most likely the same with Malcolm’s, which was slave revolt, they are all fighting for the rights of slaves. They insisted that, black race should have to same right as the white race. The white race should not have dominated the history. Fanny Kemble, John Brown and Frederick Olmsted were from the white races, which could even be more controversial, since even the white people started to oppose the unfair treatments the slaves received. These people’s actions had influenced Malcolm. 7. One of the assumptions Malcolm had made was that, before the Negroes wanted to gain civil rights from the United Nation, they would have to first gain their basic human rights. (mentioned on P. 218). To certain extent, I agree with his assumption. According to some research I have found from the official website of United Nations[1](please refer to the reference on page 4), the United Nations was established in 1947. Since then, they have been discussing problems regarding human rights. From an article I have read, it had mentioned about â€Å"all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world†. This was the ultimate aim of the organization. So the establishment of United Nation was a leap of gaining human rights for the Africans. However, African American was a missing element. However, the establishment of United Nation did not support a permanent right for the African. Regarding a news[2](refer to the reference on page 4) in 2010, the equality of Africans was still a controversial problem, and had not been tackled. So what I could say is that, I am not sure whether the assumption Malcolm had made was right or not. 8. After reading the passage of Malcolm, I think he has discontent feelings towards the white men. Although his passage was titles â€Å"learning to read†, he had only spent a few paragraphs describing the progress of his learning, nevertheless almost half of the passage using historical examples to criticize the white men of using their power brainwashing the people. He thought the white men had taken away the human right of the black men. However, I think it was understandable for him to have these kinds of thoughts, since he had received a several unfair treatments from the white people when he was younger, so the white people gave him a bad impression initially. As he represented the NOI (Nation of Islam), he had to criticize the white people, in order to persuade and gain supports from the black races who were under a very bad condition. 9. I think in certain extent it’s possible to empower the students in the way Malcolm X’s self-education. Firstly, the situation of Malcolm is a very rare case. He was in prison for 7 years. That is probably the reason he can self- educate. He had so much time in the prison, no temptation and without connecting the world. He had much time copying words from the dictionary, while the students in the modern world had to face different kind of problems in daily life, they would not have time copying the dictionary every day. However, I think the students could use part of Malcolm’s method to educate themselves by squeezing out a little time and memorizing some of the vocabularies every day, but not using the method as extreme as Malcolm’s. 10. I think the overall message of the passage was not solely bringing out the effectiveness of reading books; instead Malcolm wanted also to bring out the problem of black races being suppressed by the white men. In the passage, Malcolm had pointed out the history was being â€Å"whitening†, which means the history was written by the white men. The examples he had raised up were all against the white races. That was the point I realized his passage was not purely like the topic â€Å"Learning to read†. CLOSING QUESTION 11. The book â€Å"Happiness† has inspired me the most. This book taught me the right attitude I should have towards life. It gave me so much positive energy. People used to be so happy and care-free when we were younger, however, when people were growing up, they started to have many unnecessary worries. This book urged me to reflect myself, and give me more motivation and wisdom to treat daily life problems. â€Å"Learning to read† gave me a brand new perspective. I am not person with critical thinking. When I was younger, I have studied the history of Europe, and I used to believe most of them. This passage reminded me that the history were all written by the white races, which means they could actually â€Å"create† history in the way which benefited them. I used to think history are what people in the past have written and could not be doubt, since no one could go back to the past and prove what had really happened. Nevertheless, now I think history could have a possibility of fakeness, and could not be completely believed. 12. Malcolm X to me was a very tough and smart person. I admired his attitude in the prison. Most of the people would have blamed themselves of getting in the jail and might have given their hopes after they went to the jail, however, Malcolm educated himself in the jail, even harder than the normal people. This kind of faith and spirit is very meritorious. He later even made great achievement on fighting for the right of the black race. However, when reading his passage, I could not completely agree his perspective, there might be biases. Since he himself is from the black race, and was the leader of the Nation of Islam, his words could be bias to the black race. He kept on criticizing the white men, which he had a quite extreme point of view, it was probably because some unfair treatments he had received in the past. So when reading his passage, I have to neglect how meritorious the author was, and analysis carefully the information I received. Reference for Question 7 [1]United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) http://www. blackpast. org/? q=united-nations-universal-declaration-human-rights-1948 The United Nations, http://www. un. org/en/documents/udhr/ [2]An article regarding concern on Civil rights of African http://www. aclu. org/human-rights/un-report-highlights-need-us-civil-and-human-rights-commission

Persuasive Analysis – Henry’s Speech to the Virginia Convention

Hieu Nguyen Period 1 Persuasive Analysis – Henry's Speech to the Virginia Convention Patrick Henry in the speech, â€Å"Speech to the Virginia Convention† suggest that the American Colonists join his cause to fight against Britain in order to gain liberty. Henry uses many rhetorical devices in order to persuade the audience to join his fight. Some of the devices Henry uses include ethos, logos, pathos, allusions, and so on. Even though most of Henry's logic benefited him in persuading his audience, there were some parts of his logic where he exaggerated too much as well.In the speech to the Virginia Convention, Henry uses the rhetorical devices of ethos, pathos, rhetorical questions, and metaphors to his advantage in winning over the minds of the American colonists. Henry starts his speech by saying â€Å"My. President: No man thinks more highly than I do of the patriotism, as well as abilities, of the very worthy gentlemen who have just addressed the House. † He nry uses ethos to set a good image of himself. By saying that he thinks highly of patriotism, people will see his as a good man who knows what he is doing. For my own part, I consider it as nothing less than a questions of freedom or slavery; and in proportion to the magnitude of the subject ought to be the freedom of the debate. † Henry also uses ethos to make the colonist believe that he is a person who is fighting for the good of freedom. â€Å"I have but on lamp by which my feet are guided; and that is the lamp of experience. ‘ This is not only a metaphor, but an allusion that appeals to ethos and pathos as well. In metaphorically calling experience a lamp, he is saying that experience will show or â€Å"light† the way for the future.There is a Biblical allusion here to the scripture which that God's word is a â€Å"lamp unto thy feet and a light unto thy path. † This is an appeal to authority (God or the Bible). This is also an appeal to ethos and pat hos because it shows him as a spiritual person (ethos) and it suggests safety and security (pathos). By saying this quote, he has easily swayed the colonist to join him after they hear all the assurance Henry showed. â€Å"Can gentlemen assign any other possible motives for it? Has Great Britain any enemy in this quarter of the world to call for all this accumulation of navies and rmies? No, sir, she has none. † In paragraph 4, Henry uses a series of rhetorical questions then follows each one with a declarative sentence answering his questions. The rhetorical effect is that he emphasizes the military procedures which the British are taking. This creates an appeal to pathos because it evokes fear in the minds of the American colonists, which would bring them to join Henry Even though Henry uses his logic well to persuade the Americans, there are also some parts where he exaggerates as well .One common type of fallacy that Henry uses is an either-or fallacy; either gain indepen dence by war with Britain or forever stay under the manipulation of the British empire. For example, â€Å"For my own part, I consider it as nothing less than a question of freedom or slavery†¦ the subject ought to be the freedom of the debate.. It is only in this way that we can hope to arrive at truth†¦ † Henry claims that freedom from Britain is the only solution to their problems. By doing so, the audience is more engaged on his side of the agreement and may not see any sense of the argument as a result. There is no retreat but in submission in slavery! Our chains are forged! Their clanking may be heard on the plains of Boston! † Henry's statement only commits the fallacy of only two alternatives. Either America fights in order to obtain freedom, or America submits to being enslaved by the British. â€Å"They tell us, sir, that we are weak – unable to cope with the so formidable an adversary. But when shall we be stronger? Will it be the next week, or the next year? Will it be when we are totally disarmed, and when a British guard shall be stationed in every house?Shall we gather strength by irresolution and inaction? Shall we acquire the means of effectual resistance, by lying supinely on our backs, and hugging the delusive phantom of hope, until our enemies shall have bound us hand and foot? † This demonstrates an appeal to consequences. Henry, although never outright says it, is trying to say that we are strong enough to fight back. He states this indirectly by asking when we will be strong enough and then he hints at the consequences. Also you can read Rhetorical Devices in Night Walker by Brent StaplesThe consequence would be the result of the colonies not fighting back against Britain in time. He is trying to tell the audience that they need to realize they are strong enough to resist the British, and that if they do not, then they will suffer the consequences. The is over exaggerating since Henry only sets out two choices instead of all the other possible choices there could be. Henry's purpose in the speech to the Virginia Convention was to persuade his audience to join his fight against the British in order to gain liberty and independence.Patrick Henry uses ethos to apply authority and a good image to himself in order to sway the colonist into believing him. He also uses pathos to strike fear into the hearts of the Americans or provide security and hope. But even though Henry sways his audience with his logic, there are certain parts where he exaggerates too much and provides only two possible outcomes. Eith er fight against Britain and gain freedom, or submit and become enslaved. This only gives the audience two things to think about and they do not consider any other outcome.

Analysis of “Fight Club” Essay - 1239 Words

Analysis of â€Å"Fight Club† For years David Fincher has directed some of the most stylish and creative thrillers in American movies. His works include: Aliens 3, Seven, The Game and Fight Club. Each of these films has been not only pleasing and fun to watch but each has commented on society, making the viewers think outside the normal and analyze their world. Fight Club is no exception, it is a multi-layered film with many subplots and themes, but primarily it is a surrealistic description of the status of the American male at the end of the 20th century. David Flincher’s movie, Fight Club, shows how consumerism has caused the emasculation of the modern male and tells a tale of liberation from a corporate controlled society. In the†¦show more content†¦The corporate ownership of the male extends to how much his life is worth. Ed Norton works in a claims department for a large car manufacture. His job is to decide what a manufacture does in case of a design flaw. Take for example, if a carburetor runs a risk of exploding after 100,000 miles; ED Norton’s job is to investigate the probability of this happening. Then take the number of vehicles on the road and multiply them it by the probable rate of failure and multiply the product again with average price of an out of court settlement. If the end result is less than the cost of a recall, there is no recall. Brad Pitt makes a statement that illustrates the society the modern male is forced to live in, â€Å"We are a society of men raised by women.† The film shows the emasculation of the 20th century male, not only by our consumer-oriented society but also by feminine standards of civilization. The best example of this would be the support groups Ed Norton visits. In these support groups, men are told to gather power, strength and courage from each other not from themselves. At the end of the sessions men are told to hold each other and cry, things that are very non-stereotypical of men. The 20th century society does not want men to function independently and be able to be emotionally strong on their own, it does not want men to be men. Society wants to take the very ideals of being a man, independence, strength and courage and only allow for men to experience themShow MoreRelatedFight Club Analysis1678 Words   |  7 PagesDo you find yourself lost, searching for self-worth in mo dern Society? The Narrator in Chuck Palahniuk’s novel Fight Club struggles with insomnia due to his repetitive nine to five office-job. He longs to feel alive, thinking that purchasing materialistic objects and conforming to what modern society considers the norm will fill his void. Tyler Durden, The Narrators alter ego states, â€Å"the first step to eternal life is you have to die† (Palahniuk 11). 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It also depends on modern society being defined by media culture. In this essay, I will be examining Fight Club (David Fincher, 1999) and how it can be categorised as postmodern. I will be defining what a postmodern film is and review the term using historical examples referenced in the text. â€Å"Lyotard famously defines the postmodern as incredulity towards